Aikido (Japanese: ???, Hepburn: aikid?) [aiki?do:] is a modern Japanese martial art developed by Morihei Ueshiba as a synthesis of his martial studies, philosophy, and religious beliefs. Aikido is often translated as "the way of unifying (with) life energy" or as "the way of harmonious spirit".
Ueshiba's goal was to create an art that practitioners could use to defend themselves while also protecting their attacker from injury.
Aikido's techniques include: irimi (entering), turning movements (that redirect the opponent's attack momentum), various types of throws and joint locks).
Aikido derives mainly from the martial art of Dait?-ry? Aiki-j?jutsu, but began to diverge from it in the late 1920s, partly due to Ueshiba's involvement with the ?moto-ky? religion. Ueshiba's early students' documents bear the term aiki-j?jutsu.
Ueshiba's senior students have different approaches to aikido, depending partly on when they studied with him. Today aikido is found all over the world in a number of styles, with broad ranges of interpretation and emphasis. However, they all share techniques formulated by Ueshiba and most have concern for the well-being of the attacker.
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Etymology and basic philosophy
The word "aikido" is formed of three kanji:
- ? - ai - joining, unifying, combining, fitting
- ? - ki - spirit, energy, mood, morale
- ? - d? - way, path
The term aiki does not readily appear in the Japanese language outside the scope of bud?. This has led to many possible interpretations of the word. ? is mainly used in compounds to mean 'combine, unite, join together, meet', examples being ?? (combined/united), ?? (composition), ?? (unite/combine/join together), ?? (union/alliance/association), ?? (combine/unify), and ?? (mutual agreement). There is an idea of reciprocity, ???? (to get to know one another), ???? (talk/discussion/negotiation), and ?????? (meet by appointment).
? is often used to describe a feeling, as in X???? ('I feel X', as in terms of thinking but with less cognitive reasoning), and ??? (feeling/sensation); it is used to mean energy or force, as in ?? (electricity) and ?? (magnetism); it can also refer to qualities or aspects of people or things, as in ?? (spirit/trait/temperament).
The term d? is also found in martial arts such as judo and kendo, and in various non-martial arts, such as Japanese calligraphy (shod?), flower arranging (kad?) and tea ceremony (chad? or sad?).
Therefore, from a purely literal interpretation, aikido is the "Way of combining forces", in that the term aiki refers to the martial arts principle or tactic of blending with an attacker's movements for the purpose of controlling their actions with minimal effort. One applies aiki by understanding the rhythm and intent of the attacker to find the optimal position and timing to apply a counter-technique.
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History
Aikido was created by Morihei Ueshiba (?? ?? Ueshiba Morihei, 14 December 1883 - 26 April 1969), referred to by some aikido practitioners as ?sensei (Great Teacher). The term aikido was coined in the twentieth century. Ueshiba envisioned aikido not only as the synthesis of his martial training, but as an expression of his personal philosophy of universal peace and reconciliation. During Ueshiba's lifetime and continuing today, aikido has evolved from the aiki that Ueshiba studied into a variety of expressions by martial artists throughout the world.
Initial development
Ueshiba developed aikido primarily during the late 1920s through the 1930s through the synthesis of the older martial arts that he had studied. The core martial art from which aikido derives is Dait?-ry? aiki-j?jutsu, which Ueshiba studied directly with Takeda S?kaku, the reviver of that art. Additionally, Ueshiba is known to have studied Tenjin Shin'y?-ry? with Tozawa Tokusabur? in Tokyo in 1901, Got?ha Yagy? Shingan-ry? under Nakai Masakatsu in Sakai from 1903 to 1908, and judo with Kiyoichi Takagi (?? ??? Takagi Kiyoichi, 1894-1972) in Tanabe in 1911.
The art of Dait?-ry? is the primary technical influence on aikido. Along with empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques, Ueshiba incorporated training movements with weapons, such as those for the spear (yari), short staff (j?), and perhaps the bayonet (??, j?ken). However, aikido derives much of its technical structure from the art of swordsmanship (kenjutsu).
Ueshiba moved to Hokkaid? in 1912, and began studying under Takeda Sokaku in 1915. His official association with Dait?-ry? continued until 1937. However, during the latter part of that period, Ueshiba had already begun to distance himself from Takeda and the Dait?-ry?. At that time Ueshiba was referring to his martial art as "Aiki Bud?". It is unclear exactly when Ueshiba began using the name "aikido", but it became the official name of the art in 1942 when the Greater Japan Martial Virtue Society (Dai Nippon Butoku Kai) was engaged in a government sponsored reorganization and centralization of Japanese martial arts.
Religious influences
After Ueshiba left Hokkaid? in 1919, he met and was profoundly influenced by Onisaburo Deguchi, the spiritual leader of the ?moto-ky? religion (a neo-Shinto movement) in Ayabe. One of the primary features of ?moto-ky? is its emphasis on the attainment of utopia during one's life. This was a great influence on Ueshiba's martial arts philosophy of extending love and compassion especially to those who seek to harm others. Aikido demonstrates this philosophy in its emphasis on mastering martial arts so that one may receive an attack and harmlessly redirect it. In an ideal resolution, not only is the receiver unharmed, but so is the attacker.
In addition to the effect on his spiritual growth, the connection with Deguchi gave Ueshiba entry to elite political and military circles as a martial artist. As a result of this exposure, he was able to attract not only financial backing but also gifted students. Several of these students would found their own styles of aikido.
International dissemination
Aikido was first brought to the rest of the world in 1951 by Minoru Mochizuki with a visit to France where he introduced aikido techniques to judo students. He was followed by Tadashi Abe in 1952, who came as the official Aikikai Hombu representative, remaining in France for seven years. Kenji Tomiki toured with a delegation of various martial arts through 15 continental states of the United States in 1953. Later that year, Koichi Tohei was sent by Aikikai Hombu to Hawaii for a full year, where he set up several dojo. This trip was followed by several further visits and is considered the formal introduction of aikido to the United States. The United Kingdom followed in 1955; Italy in 1964 by Hiroshi Tada; and Germany in 1965 by Katsuaki Asai. Designated "Official Delegate for Europe and Africa" by Morihei Ueshiba, Masamichi Noro arrived in France in September 1961. Seiichi Sugano was appointed to introduce aikido to Australia in 1965. Today there are aikido dojo throughout the world.
Proliferation of independent organizations
The largest aikido organization is the Aikikai Foundation, which remains under the control of the Ueshiba family. However, aikido has many styles, mostly formed by Morihei Ueshiba's major students.
The earliest independent styles to emerge were Yoseikan Aikido, begun by Minoru Mochizuki in 1931, Yoshinkan Aikido, founded by Gozo Shioda in 1955, and Shodokan Aikido, founded by Kenji Tomiki in 1967. The emergence of these styles pre-dated Ueshiba's death and did not cause any major upheavals when they were formalized. Shodokan Aikido, however, was controversial, since it introduced a unique rule-based competition that some felt was contrary to the spirit of aikido.
After Ueshiba's death in 1969, two more major styles emerged. Significant controversy arose with the departure of the Aikikai Hombu Dojo's chief instructor Koichi Tohei, in 1974. Tohei left as a result of a disagreement with the son of the founder, Kisshomaru Ueshiba, who at that time headed the Aikikai Foundation. The disagreement was over the proper role of ki development in regular aikido training. After Tohei left, he formed his own style, called Shin Shin Toitsu Aikido, and the organization that governs it, the Ki Society (Ki no Kenky?kai).
A final major style evolved from Ueshiba's retirement in Iwama, Ibaraki and the teaching methodology of long term student Morihiro Saito. It is unofficially referred to as the "Iwama style", and at one point a number of its followers formed a loose network of schools they called Iwama Ryu. Although Iwama style practitioners remained part of the Aikikai until Saito's death in 2002, followers of Saito subsequently split into two groups. One remained with the Aikikai and the other formed the independent Shinshin Aikishuren Kai in 2004 around Saito's son Hitohiro Saito.
Today, the major styles of aikido are each run by a separate governing organization, have their own headquarters (????, honbu d?j?) in Japan, and have an international breadth.
Ki
The study of ki is an important component of aikido, and its study defies categorization as either "physical" or "mental" training, as it encompasses both. The kanji for ki normally is written as ?. It was written as ? until the writing reforms after World War II, and this older form still is seen on occasion.
The character for ki is used in everyday Japanese terms, such as "health" (??, genki), or "shyness" (??, uchiki). Ki has many meanings, including "ambience", "mind", "mood", and "intention", however, in traditional martial arts it is often used to refer to "life energy". G?z? Shioda's Yoshinkan Aikido, considered one of the "hard styles", largely follows Ueshiba's teachings from before World War II, and surmises that the secret to ki lies in timing and the application of the whole body's strength to a single point. In later years, Ueshiba's application of ki in aikido took on a softer, more gentle feel. This was his Takemusu Aiki and many of his later students teach about ki from this perspective. Koichi Tohei's Ki Society centers almost exclusively around the study of the empirical (albeit subjective) experience of ki with students ranked separately in aikido techniques and ki development.
Training
In aikido, as in virtually all Japanese martial arts, there are both physical and mental aspects of training. The physical training in aikido is diverse, covering both general physical fitness and conditioning, as well as specific techniques. Because a substantial portion of any aikido curriculum consists of throws, beginners learn how to safely fall or roll. The specific techniques for attack include both strikes and grabs; the techniques for defense consist of throws and pins. After basic techniques are learned, students study freestyle defense against multiple opponents, and techniques with weapons.
Fitness
Physical training goals pursued in conjunction with aikido include controlled relaxation, correct movement of joints such as hips and shoulders, flexibility, and endurance, with less emphasis on strength training. In aikido, pushing or extending movements are much more common than pulling or contracting movements. This distinction can be applied to general fitness goals for the aikido practitioner.
In aikido, specific muscles or muscle groups are not isolated and worked to improve tone, mass, or power. Aikido-related training emphasizes the use of coordinated whole-body movement and balance similar to yoga or pilates. For example, many dojos begin each class with warm-up exercises (????, junbi tais?), which may include stretching and ukemi (break falls).
Roles of uke and tori
Aikido training is based primarily on two partners practicing pre-arranged forms (kata) rather than freestyle practice. The basic pattern is for the receiver of the technique (uke) to initiate an attack against the person who applies the technique--the ?? tori, or shite ?? (depending on aikido style), also referred to as ?? nage (when applying a throwing technique), who neutralises this attack with an aikido technique.
Both halves of the technique, that of uke and that of tori, are considered essential to aikido training. Both are studying aikido principles of blending and adaptation. Tori learns to blend with and control attacking energy, while uke learns to become calm and flexible in the disadvantageous, off-balance positions in which tori places them. This "receiving" of the technique is called ukemi. Uke continuously seeks to regain balance and cover vulnerabilities (e.g., an exposed side), while tori uses position and timing to keep uke off-balance and vulnerable. In more advanced training, uke will sometimes apply reversal techniques (???, kaeshi-waza) to regain balance and pin or throw tori.
Ukemi (??) refers to the act of receiving a technique. Good ukemi involves attention to the technique, the partner and the immediate environment--it is an active rather than a passive receiving of aikido. The fall itself is part of aikido, and is a way for the practitioner to receive, safely, what would otherwise be a devastating strike or throw.
Initial attacks
Aikido techniques are usually a defense against an attack, so students must learn to deliver various types of attacks to be able to practice aikido with a partner. Although attacks are not studied as thoroughly as in striking-based arts, sincere attacks (a strong strike or an immobilizing grab) are needed to study correct and effective application of technique.
Many of the strikes (??, uchi) of aikido resemble cuts from a sword or other grasped object, which indicate its origins in techniques intended for armed combat. Other techniques, which explicitly appear to be punches (tsuki), are practiced as thrusts with a knife or sword. Kicks are generally reserved for upper-level variations; reasons cited include that falls from kicks are especially dangerous, and that kicks (high kicks in particular) were uncommon during the types of combat prevalent in feudal Japan. Some basic strikes include:
- Front-of-the-head strike (????, sh?men'uchi) a vertical knifehand strike to the head. In training, this is usually directed at the forehead or the crown for safety, but more dangerous versions of this attack target the bridge of the nose and the maxillary sinus.
- Side-of-the-head strike (????, yokomen'uchi) a diagonal knifehand strike to the side of the head or neck.
- Chest thrust (???, mune-tsuki) a punch to the torso. Specific targets include the chest, abdomen, and solar plexus. Same as "middle-level thrust" (????, ch?dan-tsuki), and "direct thrust" (???, choku-tsuki).
- Face thrust (????, ganmen-tsuki) a punch to the face. Same as "upper-level thrust" (????, j?dan-tsuki).
Beginners in particular often practice techniques from grabs, both because they are safer and because it is easier to feel the energy and lines of force of a hold than a strike. Some grabs are historically derived from being held while trying to draw a weapon; a technique could then be used to free oneself and immobilize or strike the attacker who is grabbing the defender. The following are examples of some basic grabs:
- Single-hand grab (????, katate-dori) one hand grabs one wrist.
- Both-hands grab (????, morote-dori) both hands grab one wrist. Same as "single hand double-handed grab" (??????, katatery?te-dori)
- Both-hands grab (????, ry?te-dori) both hands grab both wrists. Same as "double single-handed grab" (?????, ry?katate-dori).
- Shoulder grab (???, kata-dori) a shoulder grab. "Both-shoulders-grab" is ry?kata-dori (????). It is sometimes combined with an overhead strike as Shoulder grab face strike (??????, kata-dori men-uchi).
- Chest grab (???, mune-dori or muna-dori) grabbing the (clothing of the) chest. Same as "collar grab" (???, eri-dori).
Basic techniques
The following are a sample of the basic or widely practiced throws and pins. Many of these techniques derive from Dait?-ry? Aiki-j?jutsu, but some others were invented by Morihei Ueshiba. The precise terminology for some may vary between organisations and styles, so what follows are the terms used by the Aikikai Foundation. Note that despite the names of the first five techniques listed, they are not universally taught in numeric order.
- First technique (?? (?), ikky?) a control using one hand on the elbow and one hand near the wrist which leverages uke to the ground. This grip applies pressure into the ulnar nerve at the wrist.
- Second technique (??, niky?) a pronating wristlock that torques the arm and applies painful nerve pressure. (There is an adductive wristlock or Z-lock in ura version.)
- Third technique (??, sanky?) a rotational wristlock that directs upward-spiraling tension throughout the arm, elbow and shoulder.
- Fourth technique (??, yonky?) a shoulder control similar to ikky?, but with both hands gripping the forearm. The knuckles (from the palm side) are applied to the recipient's radial nerve against the periosteum of the forearm bone.
- Fifth technique (??, goky?) visually similar to ikky?, but with an inverted grip of the wrist, medial rotation of the arm and shoulder, and downward pressure on the elbow. Common in knife and other weapon take-aways.
- Four-direction throw (????, shih?nage) the hand is folded back past the shoulder, locking the shoulder joint.
- Forearm return (????, kotegaeshi) a supinating wristlock-throw that stretches the extensor digitorum.
- Breath throw (????, koky?nage) a loosely used term for various types of mechanically unrelated techniques, although they generally do not use joint locks like other techniques.
- Entering throw (????, iriminage) throws in which tori moves through the space occupied by uke. The classic form superficially resembles a "clothesline" technique.
- Heaven-and-earth throw (????, tenchinage) beginning with ry?te-dori; moving forward, tori sweeps one hand low ("earth") and the other high ("heaven"), which unbalances uke so that he or she easily topples over.
- Hip throw (???, koshinage) aikido's version of the hip throw. Tori drops their hips lower than those of uke, then flips uke over the resultant fulcrum.
- Figure-ten throw (????, j?jinage) or figure-ten entanglement (????, j?jigarami) a throw that locks the arms against each other (the kanji for "10" is a cross-shape: ?).
- Rotary throw (????, kaitennage) Tori sweeps the arm back until it locks the shoulder joint, then uses forward pressure to throw.
Implementations
Aikido is more of a defensive martial art. It makes use of body movement (tai sabaki) to blend with uke. For example, an "entering" (irimi) technique consists of movements inward towards uke, while a "turning" (??, tenkan) technique uses a pivoting motion. Additionally, an "inside" (?, uchi) technique takes place in front of uke, whereas an "outside" (?, soto) technique takes place to their side; a "front" (?, omote) technique is applied with motion to the front of uke, and a "rear" (?, ura) version is applied with motion towards the rear of uke, usually by incorporating a turning or pivoting motion. Finally, most techniques can be performed while in a seated posture (seiza). Techniques where both uke and tori are standing are called tachi-waza, techniques where both start off in seiza are called suwari-waza, and techniques performed with uke standing and tori sitting are called hanmi handachi (????).
Thus, from fewer than twenty basic techniques, there are thousands of possible implementations. For instance, ikky? can be applied to an opponent moving forward with a strike (perhaps with an ura type of movement to redirect the incoming force), or to an opponent who has already struck and is now moving back to reestablish distance (perhaps an omote-waza version). Specific aikido kata are typically referred to with the formula "attack-technique(-modifier)". For instance, katate-dori ikky? refers to any ikky? technique executed when uke is holding one wrist. This could be further specified as katate-dori ikky? omote, referring to any forward-moving ikky? technique from that grab.
Atemi (???) are strikes (or feints) employed during an aikido technique. Some view atemi as attacks against "vital points" meant to cause damage in and of themselves. For instance, G?z? Shioda described using atemi in a brawl to quickly down a gang's leader. Others consider atemi, especially to the face, to be methods of distraction meant to enable other techniques. A strike, whether or not it is blocked, can startle the target and break their concentration. The target may become unbalanced in attempting to avoid the blow, for example by jerking the head back, which may allow for an easier throw. Many sayings about atemi are attributed to Morihei Ueshiba, who considered them an essential element of technique.
Weapons
Weapons training in aikido traditionally includes the short staff (j?), wooden sword (bokken), and knife (tant?). Some schools incorporate firearm-disarming techniques. Both weapon-taking and weapon-retention are taught. Some schools, such as the Iwama style of Morihiro Saito, usually spend substantial time with bokken and j?, practised under the names aiki-ken, and aiki-j?, respectively.
The founder developed many of the empty-handed techniques from traditional sword and spear movements. Consequently, the practice of the weapons arts gives insight into the origin of techniques and movements, and reinforces the concepts of distance, timing, foot movement, presence and connectedness with one's training partner(s).
Multiple attackers and randori
One feature of aikido is training to defend against multiple attackers, often called taninzudori, or taninzugake. Freestyle practice with multiple attackers, called randori (??) or jiy?waza (???), is a key part of most curricula and is required for the higher level ranks. Randori exercises a person's ability to intuitively perform techniques in an unstructured environment. Strategic choice of techniques, based on how they reposition the student relative to other attackers, is important in randori training. For instance, an ura technique might be used to neutralise the current attacker while turning to face attackers approaching from behind.
In Shodokan Aikido, randori differs in that it is not performed with multiple persons with defined roles of defender and attacker, but between two people, where both participants attack, defend, and counter at will. In this respect it resembles judo randori.
Injuries
In applying a technique during training, it is the responsibility of tori to prevent injury to uke by employing a speed and force of application that is commensurate with their partner's proficiency in ukemi. Injuries (especially those to the joints), when they do occur in aikido, are often the result of tori misjudging the ability of uke to receive the throw or pin.
A study of injuries in the martial arts showed that the type of injuries varied considerably from one art to the other. Soft tissue injuries are one of the most common types of injuries found within aikido, as well as joint strain and stubbed fingers and toes. Several deaths from head-and-neck injuries, caused by aggressive shih?nage in a senpai/k?hai hazing context, have been reported.
Mental training
Aikido training is mental as well as physical, emphasizing the ability to relax the mind and body even under the stress of dangerous situations. This is necessary to enable the practitioner to perform the bold enter-and-blend movements that underlie aikido techniques, wherein an attack is met with confidence and directness. Morihei Ueshiba once remarked that one "must be willing to receive 99% of an opponent's attack and stare death in the face" in order to execute techniques without hesitation. As a martial art concerned not only with fighting proficiency but with the betterment of daily life, this mental aspect is of key importance to aikido practitioners.
Uniforms and ranking
Aikido practitioners (commonly called aikid?ka outside Japan) generally progress by promotion through a series of "grades" (ky?), followed by a series of "degrees" (dan), pursuant to formal testing procedures. Some aikido organizations use belts to distinguish practitioners' grades, often simply white and black belts to distinguish kyu and dan grades, though some use various belt colors. Testing requirements vary, so a particular rank in one organization is not comparable or interchangeable with the rank of another. Some dojos do not allow students to take the test to obtain a dan rank unless they are 16 or older.
The uniform worn for practicing aikido (aikid?gi) is similar to the training uniform (keikogi) used in most other modern martial arts; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket, usually white. Both thick ("judo-style"), and thin ("karate-style") cotton tops are used. Aikido-specific tops are available with shorter sleeves which reach to just below the elbow.
Most aikido systems add a pair of wide pleated black or indigo trousers called a hakama (used also in kendo and iaido). In many schools, its use is reserved for practitioners with (dan) ranks or for instructors, while others allow all practitioners to wear a hakama regardless of rank.
Criticisms
The most common criticism of aikido is that it suffers from a lack of realism in training. The attacks initiated by uke (and which tori must defend against) have been criticized as being "weak", "sloppy", and "little more than caricatures of an attack". Weak attacks from uke allow for a conditioned response from tori, and result in underdevelopment of the skills needed for the safe and effective practice of both partners. To counteract this, some styles allow students to become less compliant over time but, in keeping with the core philosophies, this is after having demonstrated proficiency in being able to protect themselves and their training partners. Shodokan Aikido addresses the issue by practising in a competitive format. Such adaptations are debated between styles, with some maintaining that there is no need to adjust their methods because either the criticisms are unjustified, or that they are not training for self-defense or combat effectiveness, but spiritual, fitness or other reasons.
Another criticism pertains to the shift in training focus after the end of Ueshiba's seclusion in Iwama from 1942 to the mid-1950s, as he increasingly emphasized the spiritual and philosophical aspects of aikido. As a result, strikes to vital points by tori, entering (irimi) and initiation of techniques by tori, the distinction between omote (front side) and ura (back side) techniques, and the use of weapons, were all de-emphasized or eliminated from practice. Some Aikido practitioners feel that lack of training in these areas leads to an overall loss of effectiveness.
Conversely, some styles of aikido receive criticism for not placing enough importance on the spiritual practices emphasized by Ueshiba. According to Minoru Shibata of Aikido Journal, "O-Sensei's aikido was not a continuation and extension of the old and has a distinct discontinuity with past martial and philosophical concepts." That is, that aikido practitioners who focus on aikido's roots in traditional jujutsu or kenjutsu are diverging from what Ueshiba taught. Such critics urge practitioners to embrace the assertion that "[Ueshiba's] transcendence to the spiritual and universal reality were the fundamentals [sic] of the paradigm that he demonstrated."
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